The Impact of Regulation on Economic Growth in Developing...

THE IMPACT OF REGULATION ON ECONOMIC GROWTH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS 1 ABSTRACT The role of an effective regulatory regime in promoting economic growth and development has generated considerable interest among researchers and practitioners in recent years. In particular, building effective regulatory structures in developing countries is not simply an issue of the technical design of the most appropriate regulatory instruments, it is also concerned with the quality of supporting regulatory institutions and capacity. This paper explores the role of state regulation using an econometric model of the impact of regulation on growth. The results based on two different techniques of estimation suggest a†¦show more content†¦The rest of the paper is organised as follows. Section 2 reviews issues in the literature pertinent to the debate on the role of regulation in economic growth, before turning to regulatory measures and proxies for the quality of regulation. In section 3 the models used are presented. Section 4 deals with a descriptive analysis of the data and reports the regression results. The results confirm that the quality of state regulation impacts positively on economic growth. development policy. Finally, section 5 provides conclusions and the implications for 5 2. LITERATURE REVIEW (a) Regulation Theory The theory of economic regulation developed from the nineteenth century and the literature is now vast (for recent reviews, see Laffont and Tirole, 1993, 2000; Levy and Spiller, 1994; Newbery, 1999). The case for economic regulation is premised on the existence of significant market failure resulting from economies of scale and scope in production, from information imperfections in market transactions, from the existence of incomplete markets and externalities, and from resulting income and wealth distribution effects. It has been suggested that market failures may be more pronounced, and therefore the case for public regulation is stronger, in developing countries (Stiglitz 1998). More recent theoretical contributions to the regulation literature have provided a model of regulation for network industries that recognises theShow MoreRelatedState Regulation On Uber And Cab Drivers Essay1322 Words   |  6 Pageshistory of regulation could be traced back to the ancient civilizations such as standardized weights and measures in ancient Rome, paper currency system in China, and others including Egyptian, Indian and Greek (Plagiarism, Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia). 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Claude Of Claude Debussy s Theory Of Russian Composers Of...

Claude Debussy Claude Debussy also known as Achille-Claude Debussy has been one of the most influential composers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Debussy was born into a middle class family being the son of a shopkeeper and a seamstress and the oldest of his five siblings. Debussy began his career at the Paris Conservatory at the very young age of 11. During his studies, he met the wealthy Nadezhda von Meck, a patroness of Tchaikovsky, who employed him to be the music teacher to her son Nikolai von Meck. Through this Nadezhda von Meck exposed the growing Debussy to the works of Russian composers, such as Borodin and Mussorgsky, who continue to be significant influences on his compositions. In 1884, when Debussy was 22 years old, he entered his cantata L Enfant prodigy also known as The Prodigal Child in the Prix de Rome, a worldwide competition for composers. Debussy took home the top prize, which allowed him to study for up to three years in the Italian capital studying at the Villa Medici. Unfortunately, he returned to Paris after only two years. While he was in Rome, he studied the music of German composer Richard Wagner. Wagner’s influence on Debussy was profound and lasting, but despite this, Debussy shied away from the ostentation of Wagner’s opera in his works. In 1892 at the age mid age of 30, Debussy began to compose for operas with the start of Pellà ©as et Mà ©lisande, a play written by Met Erik Satie, a pianist from Montmartre, which

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Questions: What Are Different Characteristics That Impact The Cyber Security System Of Business? What Are The Different Principles That Can Be Utilized To Save The System Of The Organization From The Current Cyber Attacks? What Is The Future Of Cyber Security In Organizations? Answers: Introduction The cyber security is an impactful method that develops to save the data, networks from diverse kind of cyber-attacks. The concept of cyber security is also called as computer security and IT based security. The concept of cyber security saves the data, hardware as well as software of the system and IT safety (Schweer et al., 2017). Cyber security also saves the data, software as well as hardware of the system from various harms like theft of information or money, harm or wrong usage of information. In the modern world and context, the concept of cyber security is very crucial because of rise in cybercrimes and the requirement for security is rising in diverse sectors. The concept of cyber security plays an important role in the field of business. The security or safety of data from a company is crucial as it can be used in wrong manner by number of unauthorized people. The report will discuss in detail about the different facets associated with different factors or aspects of it (Zh ang et al., 2017). Project Objective The objective of the project is to gain more knowledge related to testing diverse challenges in cyber security and it is done in context with the business. The works of research of different researchers are employed in the report to gain more clarity about the concept and its significance in business. The report will also analyze different aspects associated with cyber security. The project management is looking for answers for different important question mentioned below with the help of aiding different research paper on the challenges of cyber security for the business (Biancotti, 2017). Project Scope The projects show different dimension of cyber based issues from business point of view. The work of number of researchers is utilized to accomplish the deep understanding about cyber issues. The report will help in evaluating the different data about number of challenge in cyber security (Hu et al., 2017). The information is collected primarily because of different sources like books, journals, research paper and many more. The discussion will include diverse aspects of cyber security as well as answers the crucial questions linked with cyber based security challenge. The project guides to gain knowledge about all kind of cyber based risks and challenges related with cyber security (Sturm et al., 2017). The work will also show the different kind of methods to save the organization from cyber threats. Literature Review Following is the detailed discussion of challenges in cyber security in business: - Ransom ware: the danger from ransomware is grave by nature and in recent examples like WannaCry has proved that the gravity of the issue and the length at which it can impact the system. The concept typically restricts the user to access the crucial information as well as data of the computer or networks until right payment is made. At the same time, cyber criminals dont always help the devices in freeing up when the ransom is met and often try to take more money from the victims (Musleh et al., 2017). DDoS also called as Distributed denial of services attacks: the concept can attack at the same time also cripple so many big names at the same time in last few time which happen to include BBC, cloud related internet performance and management companies like Dyn. The attacks here will not only just scale up in the current year to terabyte per second in some cases however also enhances the overall frequency to a total of ten million attacks. The overall volume as well as scale is based on different breached that can challenge the defense system of a company no matter what the size is (Trugeman et al., 2017). Hacktivism: all kind of crimes or criminals are not profit focused and the rise of hacktivism meant with rising number of people that are breaking into current computer system for political as well as socially charged factors. These kinds of attacks can be highly damaging than any kind of normal or traditional threat since the act of hacktivist usually tried to make statement so that the efforts normally damages the overall reputation of company. There are also major safety issues since the concept of hacktivists can sometimes completely overrides the safety method or sometimes publish the document that help in posting national level risks in security. Internet of Things also called as IoT: as per the estimates by Macfree there will around two billion connected machines in the hand of consumers by the year 2019. The crime of hacking into such kind of systems will become more and more common over the coming period with issues like ransomware or any other issue which was perceived as a key issue area. There is also some important level of privacy threats as well and as smart devices usually consist of considerable amount of fragile data, the cyber based criminal can possible access. As per the research, there are some products that are sold this year and can already have backdoors installed that any criminal can possibly leverage. Dronejacking: companies and consumers are utilizing drones in new and good ways and there are cyber criminals that are taking advantage with growing name by hacking into the current base of technology. The reports also suggest that experts have already seen the easy way to take over a toy based drone which will go on the roof of the business and hack into domestic wireless networks (Farraj et al., 2017). Social engineering: the cyber security based technology and preventive measures become more complicated where criminals will turn any social engineering in an attempt to completely bypass diverse systems. This will consist of manipulation of multiple kind of deceiving people into also divulging crucial data or finance based data like phishing methods. Insider threats: businesses face external as well as internal threats and there is major chance of cyber security challenges that comes from internally. At the same time, there are more than two third of people that were malicious and remain incidental because of inadvertent reasons (Kreps et al., 2017). The latter part is based on many innocent people who at time accidently permitted the attacker to get information. Machine learning: the concept of machine learning is based on algorithms that are helping the business to perform all kind of complex data analysis work on high quantities of data at high speeds with low manual inputs. The usage of technology is based on detecting any kind of fraud, predicting the overall success of marketing campaigns and automated consumers with right kind of product suggestion along with many other applications. At the same time, the research also says that the machine level learning can be easily leveraged to commit crimes like aiding fraudsters in recognizing high value targets among large amount of data sets. Mobile malware: with rise in number of people using mobile based devices to perform everyday business tasks, the likelihood that the cyber criminals will actually attempt to exploit the overall weakness in the rises of technology. Fake advertisements: customers are constantly bombarded with ads on internet and the overall proliferation of fake advertisements as well as phishing based attacks that have eroded to an extreme level of trust in marketing collateral (Fu et al., 2017). Qualitative research The concept of qualitative research is used to gain detailed understanding of human nature, their experiences, behavior and overall intention based on varied interpretation as well as observations. It is based on finding out the method in which may think and feel. In this project, this form of research will help in understanding the viewpoint of business by using journals, case study, and other kinds of books for the types of qualitative research. Quantitative research The concept quantitative research is a kind of research that depend on the methodology of natural sciences that manufactures number based data with hard factors. It usually looks at setting a cause and effect relationship between two elements by utilizing math, computation as well as statically base methods (Gibbs, 2017). The research is also called as an empirical research as it can rightly and precisely calculated. The report will focus on aim on dividing various sections or putting it into ranks since it can be measure in term of single unit of calculation. With the help of graphs, tables as well as raw information which help in constructing with assistance of quantitative research making it simpler to evaluate the outcome. Research Limitations First thing is that the research is conducted within small period and the time is insufficient for the researcher to make a detailed observation about the gravity of attack on organizations. It is better if it was done for longer time. Secondly the overall population for the research is considerable small since cyber-attack is impacting the world and lakhs of organizations therefore, hundred companies might not be able to show the major perception. Thirdly, the design of questionnaire is based on calculating the student approach for the usage of communication based strategies that might provide a useful data about the influence of communicative based strategies and it seems not to give right data about the impact and provide enough information about the actual situations and challenges companies face in cyber security (Chazan, 2017). Moreover, the assessment of post evaluation was conducted by researcher and it is completely unavoidable for the study with specific degree of subjectiv ity that can be found here. Conclusion Cyber security is slowly becoming a crucial challenge for the business all across the world with finance and reputation based cost of breaches in data and at the same time also creating a lot of issues for many unprepared management (Fu et al., 2017). The technology is also assisting the company to completely optimize the operations with the help of many innovative methods and the number of cyber security threats that organization should tackle has also increased. Reference Schweer, D. and Sahl, J.C., 2017. The Digital Transformation of IndustryThe Benefit for Germany. InThe Drivers of Digital Transformation(pp. 23-31). Springer International Publishing. Biancotti, C., 2017. Cyber attacks: preliminary evidence from the Bank of Italy's business surveys. Hu, X., Xu, M., Xu, S. and Zhao, P., 2017. Multiple cyber attacks against a target with observation errors and dependent outcomes: Characterization and optimization.Reliability Engineering System Safety,159, pp.119-133. Sturm, L.D., Williams, C.B., Camelio, J.A., White, J. and Parker, R., 2017. Cyber-physical vulnerabilities in additive manufacturing systems: A case study attack on the. STL file with human subjects.Journal of Manufacturing Systems,44, pp.154-164. Musleh, A.S., Khalid, H.M., Muyeen, S.M. and Al-Durra, A., 2017. A Prediction Algorithm to Enhance Grid Resilience Toward Cyber Attacks in WAMCS Applications.IEEE Systems Journal. Turgeman, A., Kedem, O. and Rivner, U., Biocatch Ltd., 2017.Method, device, and system of generating fraud-alerts for cyber-attacks. U.S. Patent 9,552,470. Fu, R., Huang, X., Sun, J., Zhou, Z., Chen, D. and Wu, Y., 2017. Stability Analysis of the Cyber psychology Microgrid System under the Intermittent DoS Attacks.Energies,10(5), p.680. Kreps, S.E. and Das, D., 2017. Warring from the Virtual to the Real: Assessing the Public's Threshold for War on Cyber Security. Gibbs, S., 2017. Ebay urges users to reset passwords after cyber attacks. Chazan, D., 2017. France Blocks 24,000 Cyber Attacks Amid Fears that Russia May Try to Influence French Presidential Election.The Telegraph,8. Farraj, A., Hammad, E. and Kundur, D., 2017, April. Impact of Cyber Attacks on Data Integrity in Transient Stability Control. InProceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Cyber-Physical Security and Resilience in Smart Grids(pp. 29-34). ACM. Zhang, T., Wang, Y., Liang, X., Zhuang, Z. and Xu, W., 2017, May. Cyber attacks in cyber-physical power systems: A case study with GPRS-based SCADA systems. InControl And Decision Conference (CCDC), 2017 29th Chinese(pp. 6847-6852). IEEE.

Roman (5688 words) Essay Example For Students

Roman (5688 words) Essay RomanArchitectureAgreat deal of conjecture has been expended on the question as to the genesis ofthe Roman basilica. For present purposes it may be sufficient to observe thatthe addition of aisles to the nave was so manifest a convenience that it mightnot improbably have been thought of, even had models not been at hand in thecivic buildings of the Empire. The most suitable example that can be chosen astypical of the Roman basilica of the age of Constantine is the church of S. Maria Maggiore. And this, not merely because, in spite of certain modernalterations, it has kept in the main its original features, but also because itdeparts, to a lesser extent than any other extant example, from the classicalideal. The lateral colonnade is immediately surmounted by a horizontalentablature, with architrave, frieze, and cornice all complete. The monolithiccolumns, with their capitals, are, moreover, homogenous, and have been cut fortheir position, instead of being like those of so many early Christian churches,the more or less incongruous and heterogeneous spoils of older and non-Christianedifices. Of this church, in its original form, no one however decidedly histastes may incline to some more highly developed system or style of architecturewill call in question the stately and majestic beauty. The general effect isthat of a vast perspective of lines of noble columns, carrying the eye forwardto the altar, which, with its civory or canopy, forms so conspicuous an ob ject,standing, framed, as it mere, within the arch of the terminal apse, which formsits immediate and appropriate background. S. Maria Maggiore is considerablysmaller than were any of the other three chief basilicas of Rome (St Peters,St. Pauls, and the Lateran). Each of these, in addition to a nave of greaterlength and breadth, was furnished (as may still be seen in the restored StPauls) with a double aisle. This, however, was an advantage which was notunattended with a serious drawback from a purely esthetic point of view. For agreat space of blank wall intervening between the top of the lateral colonnadeand the clerestory windows was of necessity required in order to give support tothe penthouse roof of the double aisle. And it is curious, to say the least,that it should not have occurred to the builders of those three basilicas toutilize a portion of the space thus enclosed, and at the same time to lightenthe burden of the wall above the colonnade, by constructing a gallery abov e theinner aisle. It is true, of course, that such a gallery is found in the churchof S. Agnese, where the low-level of the floor relatively to the surface of theground outside may have suggested this method of construction; but whereas, inthe East, the provision of a gallery (used as a gynaeceum) was usual from veryearly times, it never became otherwise than exceptional in the West. Taking Eastand West together, we find among early and medieval basilican churches examplesof all the combinations that are possible in the arrangement of aisles andgalleries. They are the single aisle without gallery, which is, of course, thecommonest type of all; the double aisle without gallery, as in the three greatRoman basilicas; the single aisle with gallery, as in S. Agnese; the doubleaisle with single gallery, as in St. Demetrius at Thessalonica; and finally, asa crowning example, though of a later period, the double aisle surmounted by adouble gallery, as in the Duomo at Pisa. These, however, a re modifications inthe general design of the building. Others, not less important, though they areless obviously striking, concern the details of the construction. Of these thefirst was the substitution of the arch for the horizontal entablature, and thesecond that of the pillar of masonry for the monolithic column. The formerchange, which had already come into operation in the first basilica of St. Paulwithout the Walls, was so obviously in the nature of an improvement in point ofstability that it is no matter for surprise that it should have been almost. universally adopted. Colonnaded and arcaded basilicas, as we may call them, forthe most part older than the eleventh century, are to be found in the mostwidely distant regions, from Syria to Spain, and from Sicily to Saxony; and thelack of examples in Southern France is probably due to the destructive invasionof the Saracens and Northmen and to the building of new churches of a differenttype, in the eleventh and succeeding centuries, on the ruins of the old. Thechange from column to pillar, though in many cases it was no doubt necessitatedby lack of suitable materials for the supply of ready-made monoliths frompagan buildings was not inexhaustible proved, in fact, the germ of futuredevelopment; for from the plain square support to the recessed pillar, and fromthis again to the grouped shafts of the Gothic cathedrals of later times, theprogress can be quite plainly traced. Mention should here be made of a class ofbasilican churches, in which as in S. Miniato, outside Florence, and i n S. Zenone, Verona, pillars or grouped shafts alternate, at fixed intervals, withsimple columns, and serve the purpose of affording support to transverse archesspanning the whole width of the nave; a first step, it may be observed, tocontinuous vaulting. ROMANESQUE TYPES Something must now be said of the veryimportant alterations which the eastern end of the basilican church underwent inthe process of development from the Roman to what may conveniently be groupedtogether under the designation of Romanesque types. When, instudying the ground-plan of a Roman basilica, we pass from the nave and aislesto what lies beyond them, only two forms of design present themselves. In thegreat majority of instances the terminal apse opens immediately on the nave,with the necessary result, so far as internal arrangements are concerned, thatthe choir, as we should call it, was an enclosure, quite unconnected with thearchitecture of the building, protruding forwards into the body of the church,as may stil l be seen in the church of S. Clemente in Rome. In the four greaterbasilicas, however, as well as in a few other instances, a transept wasinterposed between the nave and the apse, affording adequate space for the choirin its central portion, while its arms (which did not project beyond the aisles)served the purpose implied in the terms senatorium and matroneum. Now it isnoteworthy that the transept of a Roman basilica is, architecturally speaking,simply an oblong hall, crossing the nave at its upper extremity, and formingwith it a T-shaped cross, or crux immissa, but having no organic structuralrelation with it. But it was only necessary to equalize the breadth of transeptand nave, so that their crossing became a perfect square, in order to give tothis crossing a definite structural character, by strengthening the pieces atthe four angles of the crossing, and making them the basis of a more or lessconspicuous tower. And this was one of the most characteristic innovation orimprovemen ts introduced by the Romanesque builders of Northern Europe. In fact,however, before this stage of development was reached, the older basilicandesign had undergone another modification. For the simple apse, openingimmediately to the transept, church builders of all parts of Europe had alreadyin the eighth century substituted a projecting chancel, forming a fourth limb ofthe cross, which now definitively assumed the form of the crux commissa, bycontrast with the crux immissa of the Roman basilica. The earliest example of aperfectly quadrate crossing, with a somewhat rudimentary tower, appears to havebeen the minster of Fulda, built about A. D. 800. It was quickly followed by St. Gall (830), Hersfeld (831), and Werden (875); but nearly two centuries were toelapse before the cruciform arrangement, even in the case of more importantchurches, can be said to have gained general acceptance (Dehio and v. Bezold,Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes, I, 161). The differences which havealready been mentioned were, however, by no means the only ones whichdistinguished the Romanesque from the Roman transept. The transept of aRomanesque church, especially of those which were attached to monasteries, wasusually provided with one or more apses, projecting from the east side of itsnorthern and southern arms; and from this it appears, plainly enough, that thepurpose, or at least a principal purpose, of the medieval transept, was to makeprovision for subsidiary altars and chapels. A pair of transept apses,projecting eastwards, already makes its appearance at Hersfeld and Werden. AtBernay, Boscherville (St- Georges), and Cerisy-la-Forà ªt(St-Vigor), each arm of the transep t has two eastern apses, correspondingrespectively to the aisle and to the projecting arm. The same arrangement isfound also at Tarragona. At La Charità ©,a priory dependent on Cluny, each arm had three apses, so that there were sevenin all, immediately contiguous to one another, and varying in depth from thecentral to the northern and southern members of the system. The plan of Clunyitself was that of a cross with two transverse beams. Of the western transepteach arm had two apses; of the eastern each had three, two projecting eastwardsand one terminal. Saint-Benoà ®t-sur-Loirehad likewise a double transept, furnished on the same principle with sixsubsidiary apses. Among English cathedrals it may here be mentioned bothCanterbury and Norwich have a single chapel projecting from each arm of theirrespective transepts; and at E1y the Galilee porch, which has theform of a western transept, opens eastwards into two apsidal chapels, contiguouson either side to the main walls of the ca thedral. Far more important in theirbearing on the later history of architecture than these developments of thetransept were certain changes which gradually took place in connection with thechancel. It is not unusual in Romanesque churches, to find the chancel flanked,like the nave, with aisles, terminating in apsidal or square-ended chapels. Butin more considerable edifices especially in France, the aisle is often carriedround as an ambulatory behind the chancel apse; and when this is the case, theambulatory most commonly opens into a series of radiating chapels. These are, inthe earliest examples, entirely separate from one another, being sometimes twoor four, but more usually three or five, in number. In later examples the numberof chapels increases to seven or even nine; and they are then contiguous,forming a complete corona or chevet. The first beginnings of this system go backto so early a date as the fifth century. De Rossi has argued, apparently on goodgrounds, that some ear ly Roman, Italian, and African basilicas were furnishedwith an ambulatory round the apse. This form of design, however, was soonabandoned in Italy, and in the Romanesque pre-Gothic period it cannot be said tohave been usual anywhere except in France, where it proved a seed rich with thepromise of future developments. The earliest instance of its adoption there wasalmost certainly the ancient church of St-Martin of Tours, as rebuilt by BishopPerpetuus in A. D. 470. This edifice, as Quicherat has shown, had a semicircularambulatory at the back of the altar, in which, a few years later, was placed thetomb of Perpetuus himself. From Tours the type seems to have passed to Clermont-Ferrand(Sts. Vitalis and Agricola), and thence, many centuries later, to Orlà ©ans(St-Aignan, 1029). Meanwhile, in 997, the church of St. Martin had been rebuilt,and in the foundations of this edifice, which can still be traced, we find whatis probably the earliest example of a chevet or corona of radiating ch apels. Itserved, in its turn, in the course of the following century, as the model, inthis respect, of Notre-Dame de la Couture at Le Mans (c. 1000), St-Remi at Reims(c. 1010), St-Savin at Saint Savin (1020-30), the cathedral at Vannes (c. 1030),St-Hilaire at Poitiers (1049), and the abbey church at Cluny, as rebuilt in1089. Shortly before 1100 the church of St. Martin was once more rebuilt, on ascale of greater splendour; and once more the new building became the model forother churches, chief among which were those of St-Sernin at Toulouse (1096), ofSantiago at Compostela (c. 1105), and of the cathedral at Chartres (1112). Double standard EssayThe final stage in the evolution of architecture of the pointed arch was not,however, reached, until, for the solid Romanesque buttresses, which rested onthe vaulting of the aisles, and which were not only clumsy but often provedinadequate for their purpose, the genius of the Gothic builders hit upon theepoch-making device of the flying buttress. By means of this device the thrustof the main vaulting was not, indeed, as has been too often said, met by acounter-thrust, but was transmitted to the solid buttresses, mostlyweighted with pinnacles, which were now built outwards to a great distance fromthe aisles, and the spaces between which were sometimes utilized, and might withadvantage have been more often utilized, for a range of lateral chapels. Thesubject of Gothic architecture in its details is, however, one that needsseparate treatment, and for present purposes this very inadequate indication ofsome of the general principles involved in its development must suffice. THECIRCULAR CHURCH AND ITS DERIVATIVES It was stated at the outset of the articlethat all ecclesiastical architecture may be said to have been devel- oped fromtwo primitive germs, the oblong and the circular chamber. Of those very numerouschurches, principally, but by no means exclusively, Eastern or Italian, whichmay be regarded as the products of the second line of development, we shallspeak very briefly. That a circular chamber without any kind of annex wasunsuitable for the ordinary purposes of public worship is plain enough. And themost obvious modification of this rudimentary form was to throw out a projectingsanctuary on one side of the building, as in St. Georges, Thessalonica, or inthe little church of S. Tommaso in Limine, near Bergamo. It was hardly lessobviously convenient to build a projecting porch or narthex on the oppositeside, as in St. Eliass, also at Thessalonica, and to complete the cross bymeans of lateral projection, as in the sepulchral chapel of Gall a Placidia atRavenna. Thus it was that churches having the form of a Greek cross, as well asother varieties of what German authors call the Centralbau, may be said to owetheir origin to a very simple process of evolution from the circular domedbuilding. Among the almost endless varieties on the main theme may be hereenumerated: buildings in which a circular, or polygonal, or quadrilateral aisle,whether in one or more stories, surrounds the central space, buildings in which,though the principal open space is cruciform, and the whole is dominated by acentral cupola, the ground- plan shows a rectangular outline, the cross being,as it were, boxed within a square; and buildings in which one of the arms of thecross is considerably elongated, as in the Duomo at Florence, St. Peters inRome, and St. Pauls in London. The last-named modification, it is to beobserved, has the effect of assimilating the ground-plan of those greatchurches, and of many lesser examples of the same character, to tha t of theRomanesque and Gothic cruciform buildings whose genealogical descent from thecolumned rectangular basilica is contestable. Among ecclesiastical edifices ofhistorical importance or interest which are either circular or polygonal, or inwhich the circular or polygonal centre predominates over subsidiary parts of thestructure, may be mentioned the Pantheon in Rome, St. Sergius at Constantinople,S. Vitale at Ravenna, S. Lorenzo at Milan, the great baptisteries of Florence,Siena, and Pisa, and the churches of the Knights Templars in various parts ofEurope. St. Luke at Stiris in Phocis, besides being an excellent typicalinstance of true Byzantine architecture, affords a good example of theboxing of a cruciform building of the Greek type, by enclosingwithin the walls the square space between the adjacent limbs of the cross. Practically, however, the full development of cruciform from circular buildingsbecame possible only when the problem had been solved of roofing a squarechamber with a circular dome. This has in some cases been done by first reducingthe square to an octagon, by means of squinches or trompettes,and then raising the dome on the octagon, by filling in the obtuse angles of thefigure with rudimentary pendentives or faced corbelling. But already in thesixth century the architect and builder of Santa Sophia had showed for all timethat it was possible by means of true pendentives, to support adome, even of immense size, on four arches (with their piers) forming a square. The use of pendentives being once understood, it became possible, not only tocombine the advantages of a great central dome with those of a cruciform church,but also to substitute domical for barrel- vaulting over the limbs of the cross,as at S. Marco, Venice, St-Front, Pà ©rigueux,and S. Antonio, Padua, or even to employ domical vaulting for a nave dividedinto square bays, as in the cathedral at Angouleme and other eleventh centurychurches in Perigord, in S. Salvatore at Venice, in the London Oratory, and(with the difference that saucer domes are here employed) in the WestminsterCathedral. Nor should it be forgotten that in the nave of St. Pauls, London,the architect had shown that domical vaulting is possible even when the bays ofnave or aisles are not square, but pronouncedly oblong. Indeed, if account betaken of the manifold disadvantages of barrel-vaulting as a means of roofing thenave of a large church, it may safely be said that the employment of some formof the dome or cupol a is as necessary to the logical and structural perfectionof the architecture of the round arch as ribbed groining and the use of flyingbuttresses are necessary to the logical and structural perfection of thearchitecture of the pointed arch. SYSTEMS AND STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE IN RELIGIONTO MODERN NEEDS A word must now be said, in conclusion, as to the merits of theseveral systems and styles of architecture, more especially in relation to theneeds of our own day. Of systems, indeed, there are in truth only three, thetrabeate or that of which the horizontal lintel may be regarded as thegenerating element, and which of necessity postulates a timber roof; that of theround arch, which by virtue of the law of economy postulates, as has been said,the use of domical rather than barrel-vaulting and that of the pointed arch,which, if carried to perfection postulates ribbed groining and the use of theflying buttress. The second system, however, admits of two methods of treatmentwhich are suffi ciently distinctive to be classed as two styles, viz. the neoclassical, or Renaissance, and the Byzantine, and which shall beparticularized presently. Now the trabeate system, or that of the timber roof,may be very briefly dismissed. In the great majority of cases we must, indeed,of necessity be content with such a covering, for our churches; but no one wouldchoose a wooden roof who could afford a vaulted building. Again, the varioustypes of Romanesque architecture, with their imperfect and tentative methods ofvaulting, though historically of great interest, should be regarded as finallyout of court. On the other hands of the Gothic architecture of the thirteenthcentury as exemplified in the great cathedrals of Northern France and ofCologne, it mas be quite fearlessly asserted: that every single principle ofconstruction employed therein was the outcome of centuries of practicalexperience, in the form of successive and progressive attempts to solve theproblems of church vaulting; that the great loftiness of these buildings was notprimari ly due (as has been sometimes suggested) to any mere Emporstreben, orupward-soaring propensity, but was simply the aggregate result ofgiving to the windows of the aisles and of the clerestory a height in suitableproportion to their width, and to the triforium a height sufficient to allow ofthe abutment of the aisle roof; and that every subsequent attempt to modify inany substantial particular, this perfected Gothic style, was of its natureretrogressive and decadent, as may be illustrated from the English perpendicularand the Italian and Spanish varieties of Gothic architecture. Nevertheless itmust be admitted that thirteenth-century Gothic, though perfect of its kind, hasits limitations, the most serious of which in relation to modern needs isthe necessarily restricted width of the nave. When the architect of the Milancathedral attempted to improve on his French predecessors by exceeding theirmaximum width of fifty feet, and to construct a Gothic building with a navemeasuring sixt y feet across it was found impossible, as the building proceeded,to carry out the original design without incurring the almost certain risk of acollapse, and hence it was necessary to depress the clerestory to its presentstunted proportions. Now under modern conditions of life, especially in the caseof a cathedral of first-class importance, a nave of far greater width is by allmeans desirable; and in order to secure this greater width it is necessaryeither to fall back on the unsatisfactory compromise of Italian or SpanishGothic, as illustrated in the cathedrals of Milan, Florence, or Gerona, or elseto adopt the principle of the round arch, combined, by preference, with domicalvaulting. This, as everyone knows, is what Mr. Bentley has done, with altogetherconspicuous success, in the case of the Westminster Cathedral. Of the design ofthis noble edifice it is impossible to speak here. But it may be worth while toindicate one main reason for the choice of the Byzantine rather than then eoclassic or Renaissance treatment of the round-arch system. The principaldifference between the two is this: that, whereas the neoclassical style, by itsuse of pilasters, treats every pier as though it were a cluster of huge,flat-faced columns; the Byzantine boldly distinguishes between piers andcolumns, and employs the latter exclusively for the purposes which monolithicshafts are suited to fulfil, for instance the support of a gallery while thepiers in a Byzantine building make no pretence of being other than what theyare, viz., the main supports of the vaulting. The Byzantine method ofconstruction was employed at Westminster has the further advantage that itbrings within the building the whole of the spaces between the buttressesthereby at the same time increasing the interior dimensions and avoiding theawkward appearance of ponderous external supports. Nor is the Byzantine style ofarchitecture suitable for a great cathedral alone; and one may venture to hopethat the great exper iment which has been tried at Westminster will be fruitfulof results in the future development of ecclesiastical architecture.